UpToDate
Official reprint from UpToDate®
www.uptodate.com ©2017 UpToDate®

非恶性疟疾概述

Authors
Jason D Maguire, MD, MPH
J Kevin Baird, PhD
Section Editor
Johanna Daily, MD, MSc
Deputy Editor
Elinor L Baron, MD, DTMH

引言

非恶性疟疾是指除恶性疟原虫以外的疟原虫导致的疟疾感染，包即：间日疟原虫、卵形疟原虫、三日疟原虫和诺氏疟原虫感染(表 1)[1,2]。恶性疟原虫携带有发生致命性结局的最高风险；感染此类病原体的单纯性疾病患者的病情可能会非常迅速地发生恶化，并变得复杂且危及生命。在非恶性疟疾中，间日疟原虫和诺氏疟原虫也常常引发严重的疾病，危及生命[2,3]。虽然三日疟原虫和卵形疟原虫也可引发严重的疾病，但这些似乎是极为罕见的事件。

非恶性疟疾的流行病学、临床表现、诊断和治疗将总结在此。恶性疟原虫疟疾将会单独详细讨论。 (参见“疟疾的临床表现”和“重型恶性疟的治疗”和“Treatment of uncomplicated falciparum malaria in nonpregnant adults and children”)

流行病学

间日疟原虫 — 在非恶性疟原虫某些类型中，以间日疟原虫的地理分布最广，疾病负担最高。在世界范围内，间日疟原虫感染范围估计在1.3-3.9亿人，并有26亿人生活在感染的风险中[4,5]。

间日疟流行发生在大部分热带地区，包括非洲、亚洲、南太平洋、中美洲和南美洲。其可能发生在能够支持按蚊生存(即使是短暂时间)的任何纬度，包括朝鲜半岛、中国、俄罗斯以及伊朗、阿富汗和塔吉克斯坦等亚洲西南部国家的温带地区。

热带密克罗尼西亚和波利尼西亚地区没有按蚊，所以在这些地区无间日疟原虫流行。此前，人们认为大多数非洲人红血细胞表面Duffy因子的缺失让几乎所有中非和西非人免受于由间日疟原虫所致疟疾感染的影响。然而目前有越来越多的证据表明，在非洲东部和西部、亚马逊河流域以及马达加斯加且Duffy抗原呈阴性的人群中存在间日疟原虫的传播[6-12]。 (参见“红细胞表面抗原和细胞骨架蛋白异常的保护性抗疟疾作用”)

                     

Subscribers log in here

To continue reading this article, you must log in with your personal, hospital, or group practice subscription. For more information or to purchase a personal subscription, click below on the option that best describes you:
Literature review current through: 2017-06 . | This topic last updated: 2017-06-28.
The content on the UpToDate website is not intended nor recommended as a substitute for medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment. Always seek the advice of your own physician or other qualified health care professional regarding any medical questions or conditions. The use of this website is governed by the UpToDate Terms of Use ©2017 UpToDate, Inc.
References
Top
  1. Singh B, Kim Sung L, Matusop A, et al. A large focus of naturally acquired Plasmodium knowlesi infections in human beings. Lancet 2004; 363:1017.
  2. Cox-Singh J, Davis TM, Lee KS, et al. Plasmodium knowlesi malaria in humans is widely distributed and potentially life threatening. Clin Infect Dis 2008; 46:165.
  3. Kochar DK, Saxena V, Singh N, et al. Plasmodium vivax malaria. Emerg Infect Dis 2005; 11:132.
  4. Hay SI, Guerra CA, Tatem AJ, et al. The global distribution and population at risk of malaria: past, present, and future. Lancet Infect Dis 2004; 4:327.
  5. Guerra CA, Snow RW, Hay SI. Mapping the global extent of malaria in 2005. Trends Parasitol 2006; 22:353.
  6. Ryan JR, Stoute JA, Amon J, et al. Evidence for transmission of Plasmodium vivax among a duffy antigen negative population in Western Kenya. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2006; 75:575.
  7. Cavasini CE, Mattos LC, Couto AA, et al. Plasmodium vivax infection among Duffy antigen-negative individuals from the Brazilian Amazon region: an exception? Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2007; 101:1042.
  8. Ménard D, Barnadas C, Bouchier C, et al. Plasmodium vivax clinical malaria is commonly observed in Duffy-negative Malagasy people. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2010; 107:5967.
  9. Mendes C, Dias F, Figueiredo J, et al. Duffy negative antigen is no longer a barrier to Plasmodium vivax--molecular evidences from the African West Coast (Angola and Equatorial Guinea). PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2011; 5:e1192.
  10. Wurtz N, Mint Lekweiry K, Bogreau H, et al. Vivax malaria in Mauritania includes infection of a Duffy-negative individual. Malar J 2011; 10:336.
  11. Culleton R, Ndounga M, Zeyrek FY, et al. Evidence for the transmission of Plasmodium vivax in the Republic of the Congo, West Central Africa. J Infect Dis 2009; 200:1465.
  12. Bernabeu M, Gomez-Perez GP, Sissoko S, et al. Plasmodium vivax malaria in Mali: a study from three different regions. Malar J 2012; 11:405.
  13. Baird JK, Purnomo, Masbar S. Plasmodium ovale in Indonesia. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 1990; 21:541.
  14. Mueller I, Zimmerman PA, Reeder JC. Plasmodium malariae and Plasmodium ovale--the "bashful" malaria parasites. Trends Parasitol 2007; 23:278.
  15. CHIN W, CONTACOS PG, COATNEY GR, KIMBALL HR. A NATURALLY ACQUITED QUOTIDIAN-TYPE MALARIA IN MAN TRANSFERABLE TO MONKEYS. Science 1965; 149:865.
  16. Kantele A, Jokiranta TS. Review of cases with the emerging fifth human malaria parasite, Plasmodium knowlesi. Clin Infect Dis 2011; 52:1356.
  17. Jongwutiwes S, Putaporntip C, Iwasaki T, et al. Naturally acquired Plasmodium knowlesi malaria in human, Thailand. Emerg Infect Dis 2004; 10:2211.
  18. Zhu HM, Li J, Zheng H. [Human natural infection of Plasmodium knowlesi]. Zhongguo Ji Sheng Chong Xue Yu Ji Sheng Chong Bing Za Zhi 2006; 24:70.
  19. Ng OT, Ooi EE, Lee CC, et al. Naturally acquired human Plasmodium knowlesi infection, Singapore. Emerg Infect Dis 2008; 14:814.
  20. Luchavez J, Espino F, Curameng P, et al. Human Infections with Plasmodium knowlesi, the Philippines. Emerg Infect Dis 2008; 14:811.
  21. Putaporntip C, Hongsrimuang T, Seethamchai S, et al. Differential prevalence of Plasmodium infections and cryptic Plasmodium knowlesi malaria in humans in Thailand. J Infect Dis 2009; 199:1143.
  22. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Simian malaria in a U.S. traveler--New York, 2008. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2009; 58:229.
  23. Wilson ME, Weld LH, Boggild A, et al. Fever in returned travelers: results from the GeoSentinel Surveillance Network. Clin Infect Dis 2007; 44:1560.
  24. Svenson JE, MacLean JD, Gyorkos TW, Keystone J. Imported malaria. Clinical presentation and examination of symptomatic travelers. Arch Intern Med 1995; 155:861.
  25. Baird JK. Evidence and implications of mortality associated with acute Plasmodium vivax malaria. Clin Microbiol Rev 2013; 26:36.
  26. Maguire JD, Fenton ME, Susanti AI, Walker JB. Plasmodium vivax-associated acute respiratory distress syndrome after extended travel in Afghanistan. Travel Med Infect Dis 2007; 5:301.
  27. Islam N, Qamruddin K. Unusual complications in benign tertian malaria. Trop Geogr Med 1995; 47:141.
  28. Torres JR, Perez H, Postigo MM, Silva JR. Acute non-cardiogenic lung injury in benign tertian malaria. Lancet 1997; 350:31.
  29. Munteis E, Mellibovsky L, Márquez MA, et al. Pulmonary involvement in a case of Plasmodium vivax malaria. Chest 1997; 111:834.
  30. Curlin ME, Barat LM, Walsh DK, Granger DL. Noncardiogenic pulmonary edema during vivax malaria. Clin Infect Dis 1999; 28:1166.
  31. Carlini ME, White AC Jr, Atmar RL. Vivax malaria complicated by adult respiratory distress syndrome. Clin Infect Dis 1999; 28:1182.
  32. Lawn SD, Krishna S, Jarvis JN, et al. Case reports: pernicious complications of benign tertian malaria. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2003; 97:551.
  33. Kotwal RS, Wenzel RB, Sterling RA, et al. An outbreak of malaria in US Army Rangers returning from Afghanistan. JAMA 2005; 293:212.
  34. Price L, Planche T, Rayner C, Krishna S. Acute respiratory distress syndrome in Plasmodium vivax malaria: case report and review of the literature. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2007; 101:655.
  35. Tjitra E, Anstey NM, Sugiarto P, et al. Multidrug-resistant Plasmodium vivax associated with severe and fatal malaria: a prospective study in Papua, Indonesia. PLoS Med 2008; 5:e128.
  36. Koh KH, Chew PH, Kiyu A. A retrospective study of malaria infections in an intensive care unit of a general hospital in Malaysia. Singapore Med J 2004; 45:28.
  37. Rifakis PM, Hernandez O, Fernández CT, et al. Atypical Plasmodium vivax malaria in a traveler: bilateral hydronephrosis, severe thrombocytopenia, and hypotension. J Travel Med 2008; 15:119.
  38. Lomar AV, Vidal JE, Lomar FP, et al. Acute respiratory distress syndrome due to vivax malaria: case report and literature review. Braz J Infect Dis 2005; 9:425.
  39. Barcus MJ, Basri H, Picarima H, et al. Demographic risk factors for severe and fatal vivax and falciparum malaria among hospital admissions in northeastern Indonesian Papua. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2007; 77:984.
  40. Facer CA, Rouse D. Spontaneous splenic rupture due to Plasmodium ovale malaria. Lancet 1991; 338:896.
  41. Moudden MK, Boukhira A, Zyani M, et al. [Severe imported malaria: the experience of the Avicenna military hospital of Marrakech]. Sante 2006; 16:259.
  42. Davis TM, Singh B, Sheridan G. Parasitic procrastination: late-presenting ovale malaria and schistosomiasis. Med J Aust 2001; 175:146.
  43. Miyashita N, Karino T, Nagatomo Y, et al. [A case of Plasmodium ovale malaria with thrombocytopenia and an abnormality grade in FDP concentration despite the use of chloroquine as a malaria prophylaxis]. Kansenshogaku Zasshi 1995; 69:450.
  44. Sukwa TY, Mulenga M, Chisdaka N, et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled field trial to determine the efficacy and safety of Malarone (atovaquone/proguanil) for the prophylaxis of malaria in Zambia. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1999; 60:521.
  45. van der Berg JD, Duvenage CS, Roskell NS, Scott TR. Safety and efficacy of atovaquone and proguanil hydrochloride for the prophylaxis of Plasmodium falciparum malaria in South Africa. Clin Ther 1999; 21:741.
  46. LUBITZ JM. Pathology of the ruptured spleen in acute vivax malaria. Blood 1949; 4:1168.
  47. Gockel HR, Heidemann J, Lorenz D, Gockel I. Spontaneous splenic rupture, in tertian malaria. Infection 2006; 34:43.
  48. Jiménez BC, Navarro M, Huerga H, López-Vélez R. Spontaneous splenic rupture due to Plasmodium vivax in a traveler: case report and review. J Travel Med 2007; 14:188.
  49. Jiménez BC, Navarro M, Huerga H, López-Vélez R. Spontaneous splenic rupture due to Plasmodium vivax in a traveler: case report and review. J Travel Med 2007; 14:188.
  50. Gehlawat VK, Arya V, Kaushik JS, Gathwala G. Clinical spectrum and treatment outcome of severe malaria caused by Plasmodium vivax in 18 children from northern India. Pathog Glob Health 2013; 107:210.
  51. Poespoprodjo JR, Fobia W, Kenangalem E, et al. Vivax malaria: a major cause of morbidity in early infancy. Clin Infect Dis 2009; 48:1704.
  52. McGready R, Lee SJ, Wiladphaingern J, et al. Adverse effects of falciparum and vivax malaria and the safety of antimalarial treatment in early pregnancy: a population-based study. Lancet Infect Dis 2012; 12:388.
  53. Ling J, Baird JK, Fryauff DJ, et al. Randomized, placebo-controlled trial of atovaquone/proguanil for the prevention of Plasmodium falciparum or Plasmodium vivax malaria among migrants to Papua, Indonesia. Clin Infect Dis 2002; 35:825.
  54. Camus D, Djossou F, Schilthuis HJ, et al. Atovaquone-proguanil versus chloroquine-proguanil for malaria prophylaxis in nonimmune pediatric travelers: results of an international, randomized, open-label study. Clin Infect Dis 2004; 38:1716.
  55. GILLES HM, HENDRICKSE RG. Possible aetiological role of Plasmodium malariae in "nephrotic syndrome" in Nigerian children. Lancet 1960; 1:806.
  56. Abdurrahman MB, Greenwood BM, Narayana P, et al. Immunological aspects of nephrotic syndrome in northern Nigeria. Arch Dis Child 1981; 56:199.
  57. Abdurrahman MB, Aikhionbare HA, Babaoye FA, et al. Clinicopathological features of childhood nephrotic syndrome in northern Nigeria. Q J Med 1990; 75:563.
  58. Vinetz JM, Li J, McCutchan TF, Kaslow DC. Plasmodium malariae infection in an asymptomatic 74-year-old Greek woman with splenomegaly. N Engl J Med 1998; 338:367.
  59. Michaud E, Ninet J, Coppère B, et al. [Nephrotic syndrome caused by Plasmodium malariae infection. A case with favourable outcome]. Presse Med 1992; 21:1386.
  60. Anochie I, Eke F, Okpere A. Childhood nephrotic syndrome: change in pattern and response to steroids. J Natl Med Assoc 2006; 98:1977.
  61. Ehrich JH, Eke FU. Malaria-induced renal damage: facts and myths. Pediatr Nephrol 2007; 22:626.
  62. Neri S, Pulvirenti D, Patamia I, et al. Acute renal failure in Plasmodium malariae infection. Neth J Med 2008; 66:166.
  63. Lee KS, Cox-Singh J, Brooke G, et al. Plasmodium knowlesi from archival blood films: further evidence that human infections are widely distributed and not newly emergent in Malaysian Borneo. Int J Parasitol 2009; 39:1125.
  64. Daneshvar C, Davis TM, Cox-Singh J, et al. Clinical and laboratory features of human Plasmodium knowlesi infection. Clin Infect Dis 2009; 49:852.
  65. William T, Menon J, Rajahram G, et al. Severe Plasmodium knowlesi malaria in a tertiary care hospital, Sabah, Malaysia. Emerg Infect Dis 2011; 17:1248.
  66. Barber BE, William T, Grigg MJ, et al. A prospective comparative study of knowlesi, falciparum, and vivax malaria in Sabah, Malaysia: high proportion with severe disease from Plasmodium knowlesi and Plasmodium vivax but no mortality with early referral and artesunate therapy. Clin Infect Dis 2013; 56:383.
  67. Hoffman SL, Piessens WF, Ratiwayanto S, et al. Reduction of suppressor T lymphocytes in the tropical splenomegaly syndrome. N Engl J Med 1984; 310:337.
  68. Vriend WH, Hoffman SL, Silaban T, Zaini M. Splenectomy in massive tropical splenomegaly: two-to six-year follow-up in 14 patients. Trop Geogr Med 1988; 40:298.
  69. Paparello SF, Hoffman SL. Hyperreactive malarial splenomegaly: part I. Post Grad Med 1992; 15:336.
  70. Moraes MF, Soares M, Arroz MJ, et al. [New concepts in hyperactive malarial splenomegaly]. Acta Med Port 2003; 16:41.
  71. Mothe B, Lopez-Contreras J, Torres OH, et al. A case of hyper-reactive malarial splenomegaly. The role of rapid antigen-detecting and PCR-based tests. Infection 2008; 36:167.
  72. Gupta OP, Bajaj S, Gupta SC. A study on tropical splenomegaly syndrome and chloroquine prophylaxis. J Assoc Physicians India 1989; 37:570.
  73. Baird JK, Hoffman SL. Primaquine therapy for malaria. Clin Infect Dis 2004; 39:1336.
  74. Schwartz E, Parise M, Kozarsky P, Cetron M. Delayed onset of malaria--implications for chemoprophylaxis in travelers. N Engl J Med 2003; 349:1510.
  75. Joshi H, Prajapati SK, Verma A, et al. Plasmodium vivax in India. Trends Parasitol 2008; 24:228.
  76. Imwong M, Boel ME, Pagornrat W, et al. The first Plasmodium vivax relapses of life are usually genetically homologous. J Infect Dis 2012; 205:680.
  77. Chin W, Coatney GR. Relapse activity in sporozoite-induced infections with a West African strain of Plasmodium ovale. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1971; 20:825.
  78. Chin W, Contacos PG. A recently isolated West African strain of plasmodium ovale. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1966; 15:1.
  79. TRAGER W, MOST H. A LONG-DELAYED PRIMARY ATTACK OF OVALE MALARIA. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1963; 12:837.
  80. Rodríguez-Morales AJ, Sánchez E, Vargas M, et al. Occurrence of thrombocytopenia in Plasmodium vivax malaria. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 41:130.
  81. Bate R, Coticelli P, Tren R, Attaran A. Antimalarial drug quality in the most severely malarious parts of Africa - a six country study. PLoS One 2008; 3:e2132.
  82. White NJ, Miller KD, Churchill FC, et al. Chloroquine treatment of severe malaria in children. Pharmacokinetics, toxicity, and new dosage recommendations. N Engl J Med 1988; 319:1493.
  83. Griffith KS, Lewis LS, Mali S, Parise ME. Treatment of malaria in the United States: a systematic review. JAMA 2007; 297:2264.
  84. http://www.who.int/ith/countries/en/index.html (Accessed on September 26, 2008).
  85. Mali S, Steele S, Slutsker L, et al. Malaria surveillance--United States, 2006. MMWR Surveill Summ 2008; 57:24.
  86. Daneshvar C, Davis TM, Cox-Singh J, et al. Clinical and parasitological response to oral chloroquine and primaquine in uncomplicated human Plasmodium knowlesi infections. Malar J 2010; 9:238.
  87. Vinetz JM. Emerging chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium vivax (Benign Tertian) malaria: the need for alternative drug treatment. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 42:1073.
  88. Talisuna AO, Bloland P, D'Alessandro U. History, dynamics, and public health importance of malaria parasite resistance. Clin Microbiol Rev 2004; 17:235.
  89. Schwartz IK, Lackritz EM, Patchen LC. Chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium vivax from Indonesia. N Engl J Med 1991; 324:927.
  90. Wellems TE, Plowe CV. Chloroquine-resistant malaria. J Infect Dis 2001; 184:770.
  91. Rieckmann KH, Davis DR, Hutton DC. Plasmodium vivax resistance to chloroquine? Lancet 1989; 2:1183.
  92. Baird JK. Chloroquine resistance in Plasmodium vivax. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2004; 48:4075.
  93. CDC. Yellow Fever Vaccine Requirements and Information on Malaria Risk and Prophylaxis, by Country. wwwn.cdc.gov/travel/yellowBookCh5-MalariaYellowFeverTable.aspx (Accessed on September 26, 2008).
  94. Baird JK, Sustriayu Nalim MF, Basri H, et al. Survey of resistance to chloroquine by Plasmodium vivax in Indonesia. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1996; 90:409.
  95. Baird JK, Wiady I, Fryauff DJ, et al. In vivo resistance to chloroquine by Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium falciparum at Nabire, Irian Jaya, Indonesia. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1997; 56:627.
  96. Fryauff DJ, Tuti S, Mardi A, et al. Chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium vivax in transmigration settlements of West Kalimantan, Indonesia. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1998; 59:513.
  97. Murphy GS, Basri H, Purnomo, et al. Vivax malaria resistant to treatment and prophylaxis with chloroquine. Lancet 1993; 341:96.
  98. Schuurkamp GJ, Spicer PE, Kereu RK, et al. Chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium vivax in Papua New Guinea. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1992; 86:121.
  99. Sumawinata IW, Bernadeta, Leksana B, et al. Very high risk of therapeutic failure with chloroquine for uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum and P. vivax malaria in Indonesian Papua. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2003; 68:416.
  100. Baird JK, Leksana B, Masbar S, et al. Diagnosis of resistance to chloroquine by Plasmodium vivax: timing of recurrence and whole blood chloroquine levels. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1997; 56:621.
  101. Castillo CM, Osorio LE, Palma GI. Assessment of therapeutic response of Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium falciparum to chloroquine in a Malaria transmission free area in Colombia. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2002; 97:559.
  102. Maguire JD, Krisin, Marwoto H, et al. Mefloquine is highly efficacious against chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium vivax malaria and Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Papua, Indonesia. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 42:1067.
  103. Lacy MD, Maguire JD, Barcus MJ, et al. Atovaquone/proguanil therapy for Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax malaria in Indonesians who lack clinical immunity. Clin Infect Dis 2002; 35:e92.
  104. Alcantara AK, Uylangco CV, Sangalang RP, Cross JH. A comparative clinical study of mefloquine and chloroquine in the treatment of vivax malaria. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 1985; 16:534.
  105. Harinasuta T, Bunnag D, Lasserre R, et al. Trials of mefloquine in vivax and of mefloquine plus 'fansidar' in falciparum malaria. Lancet 1985; 1:885.
  106. Pukrittayakamee S, Chantra A, Simpson JA, et al. Therapeutic responses to different antimalarial drugs in vivax malaria. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2000; 44:1680.
  107. Looareesuwan S, Viravan C, Webster HK, et al. Clinical studies of atovaquone, alone or in combination with other antimalarial drugs, for treatment of acute uncomplicated malaria in Thailand. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1996; 54:62.
  108. Looareesuwan S, Wilairatana P, Glanarongran R, et al. Atovaquone and proguanil hydrochloride followed by primaquine for treatment of Plasmodium vivax malaria in Thailand. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1999; 93:637.
  109. Silachamroon U, Krudsood S, Treeprasertsuk S, et al. Clinical trial of oral artesunate with or without high-dose primaquine for the treatment of vivax malaria in Thailand. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2003; 69:14.
  110. Dixon KE, Pitaktong U, Phintuyothin P. A clinical trial of mefloquine in the treatment of Plasmodium vivax malaria. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1985; 34:435.
  111. Bouchaud O, Monlun E, Muanza K, et al. Atovaquone plus proguanil versus halofantrine for the treatment of imported acute uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria in non-immune adults: a randomized comparative trial. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2000; 63:274.
  112. Baird JK, Basri H, Subianto B, et al. Treatment of chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium vivax with chloroquine and primaquine or halofantrine. J Infect Dis 1995; 171:1678.
  113. Krudsood S, Tangpukdee N, Muangnoicharoen S, et al. Clinical efficacy of chloroquine versus artemether-lumefantrine for Plasmodium vivax treatment in Thailand. Korean J Parasitol 2007; 45:111.
  114. Ratcliff A, Siswantoro H, Kenangalem E, et al. Two fixed-dose artemisinin combinations for drug-resistant falciparum and vivax malaria in Papua, Indonesia: an open-label randomised comparison. Lancet 2007; 369:757.
  115. Douglas NM, Anstey NM, Angus BJ, et al. Artemisinin combination therapy for vivax malaria. Lancet Infect Dis 2010; 10:405.
  116. Phyo AP, Lwin KM, Price RN, et al. Dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine versus chloroquine in the treatment of Plasmodium vivax malaria in Thailand: a randomized controlled trial. Clin Infect Dis 2011; 53:977.
  117. Senn N, Rarau P, Manong D, et al. Effectiveness of artemether/lumefantrine for the treatment of uncomplicated Plasmodium vivax and P. falciparum malaria in young children in Papua New Guinea. Clin Infect Dis 2013; 56:1413.
  118. Dondorp AM, Newton PN, Mayxay M, et al. Fake antimalarials in Southeast Asia are a major impediment to malaria control: multinational cross-sectional survey on the prevalence of fake antimalarials. Trop Med Int Health 2004; 9:1241.
  119. Boggild AK, Parise ME, Lewis LS, Kain KC. Atovaquone-proguanil: report from the CDC expert meeting on malaria chemoprophylaxis (II). Am J Trop Med Hyg 2007; 76:208.
  120. Overbosch D, Schilthuis H, Bienzle U, et al. Atovaquone-proguanil versus mefloquine for malaria prophylaxis in nonimmune travelers: results from a randomized, double-blind study. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 33:1015.
  121. Maguire JD, Sumawinata IW, Masbar S, et al. Chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium malariae in south Sumatra, Indonesia. Lancet 2002; 360:58.
  122. Collins WE, Contacos PG, Chin W. Experimental infection in man with Plasmodium malariae. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1973; 22:685.
  123. Tan-ariya P, Pasuralertsakul S. First report of in vitro susceptibility of Plasmodium malariae Thai isolates to chloroquine. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 1994; 25:784.
  124. Collins WE, Jeffery GM. Extended clearance time after treatment of infections with Plasmodium malariae may not be indicative of resistance to chloroquine. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2002; 67:406.
  125. Barnadas C, Ratsimbasoa A, Ranaivosoa H, et al. Short report: prevalence and chloroquine sensitivity of Plasmodium malariae in Madagascar. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2007; 77:1039.
  126. Berman JD, Nielsen R, Chulay JD, et al. Causal prophylactic efficacy of atovaquone-proguanil (Malarone) in a human challenge model. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2001; 95:429.
  127. Høgh B, Clarke PD, Camus D, et al. Atovaquone-proguanil versus chloroquine-proguanil for malaria prophylaxis in non-immune travellers: a randomised, double-blind study. Malarone International Study Team. Lancet 2000; 356:1888.
  128. Chulay JD. Challenges in the development of antimalarial drugs with causal prophylactic activity. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1998; 92:577.
  129. Shapiro TA, Ranasinha CD, Kumar N, Barditch-Crovo P. Prophylactic activity of atovaquone against Plasmodium falciparum in humans. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1999; 60:831.
  130. Lell B, Luckner D, Ndjavé M, et al. Randomised placebo-controlled study of atovaquone plus proguanil for malaria prophylaxis in children. Lancet 1998; 351:709.
  131. Shanks GD, Gordon DM, Klotz FW, et al. Efficacy and safety of atovaquone/proguanil as suppressive prophylaxis for Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Clin Infect Dis 1998; 27:494.
  132. Nosten F, ter Kuile F, Maelankiri L, et al. Mefloquine prophylaxis prevents malaria during pregnancy: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J Infect Dis 1994; 169:595.
  133. Phillips-Howard PA, Steffen R, Kerr L, et al. Safety of mefloquine and other antimalarial agents in the first trimester of pregnancy. J Travel Med 1998; 5:121.
  134. Hill DR, Baird JK, Parise ME, et al. Primaquine: report from CDC expert meeting on malaria chemoprophylaxis I. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2006; 75:402.
  135. Galappaththy GN, Omari AA, Tharyan P. Primaquine for preventing relapses in people with Plasmodium vivax malaria. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2007; :CD004389.
  136. Baird JK, Rieckmann KH. Can primaquine therapy for vivax malaria be improved? Trends Parasitol 2003; 19:115.
  137. Goller JL, Jolley D, Ringwald P, Biggs BA. Regional differences in the response of Plasmodium vivax malaria to primaquine as anti-relapse therapy. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2007; 76:203.
  138. Doherty JF, Day JH, Warhurst DC, Chiodini PL. Treatment of Plasmodium vivax malaria--time for a change? Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1997; 91:76.
  139. Fryauff DJ, Baird JK, Basri H, et al. Randomised placebo-controlled trial of primaquine for prophylaxis of falciparum and vivax malaria. Lancet 1995; 346:1190.
  140. Pang LW, Limsomwong N, Boudreau EF, Singharaj P. Doxycycline prophylaxis for falciparum malaria. Lancet 1987; 1:1161.
  141. Ehrman FC, Ellis JM, Young MD. PLASMODIUM VIVAX CHESSON STRAIN. Science 1945; 101:377.
  142. ALVING AS, JOHNSON CF, TARLOV AR, et al. Mitigation of the haemolytic effect of primaquine and enhancement of its action against exoerythrocytic forms of the Chesson strain of Piasmodium vivax by intermittent regimens of drug administration: a preliminary report. Bull World Health Organ 1960; 22:621.
  143. Myat-Phone-Kyaw, Myint-Oo, Myint-Lwin, et al. Emergence of chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium vivax in Myanmar (Burma). Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1993; 87:687.
  144. http://wwwn.cdc.gov/travel/default.aspx (Accessed on September 26, 2008).
  145. CDC. Yellow Book Homepage. http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/page/yellowbook-home-2014 (Accessed on August 22, 2013).