公开性原则: 张悦, 副主任医师 没有透露
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引言 — 骨髓增生异常综合征(myelodysplastic syndromes, MDS)是一组异质性恶性造血干细胞疾病,以增生异常性和无效性血细胞生成以及具有转化为急性白血病的可变风险为特征。这类病可能是新发的,也可能在暴露于潜在的致突变治疗(例如,放射暴露、化疗)后数年发生。
MDS患者正常的红细胞、血小板和成熟粒细胞的产生有不同程度的减少。这通常会引起许多全身性后果,包括贫血、出血和感染风险增加。 (参见“骨髓增生异常综合征并发症的治疗”)
MDS的发病机制、流行病学、临床表现、病理特征以及诊断将总结在此。MDS的细胞遗传学、预后以及治疗将单独讨论。 (参见“成人骨髓增生异常综合征的预后”和“骨髓增生异常综合征的治疗概述”和“治疗相关性髓系肿瘤:急性髓系白血病和骨髓增生异常综合征”和“骨髓增生异常综合征的细胞遗传学和分子遗传学”)
发病机制 — 人们关于MDS的发病机制所知甚少。MDS被认为是源自于某一单个转化的造血祖细胞的克隆演变过程[1,2]。研究提示该起始细胞产生了多个突变,从而导致异型增生以及无效造血[3]。
虽然大多数病例的诱发突变尚不明确,但部分病例中已发现有涉及RNA剪切体基因(例如,SF3B1、U2AF1、SRSF2、ZRSR2和U2AF35)的频发突变[4-8]。特别是在环形铁粒幼细胞性难治性贫血(refractory anemia with ring sideroblasts, RARS)和RARS伴血小板增多(RARS with thrombocytosis, RARS-T)的MDS亚型患者中,有60%-80%的病例被发现有编码RNA剪切体成分的SF3B1基因的体细胞突变[4,9-14]。 (参见“骨髓增生异常综合征的细胞遗传学和分子遗传学”,关于‘基因突变’一节)
SF3B1基因敲除的小鼠发生了环形铁粒幼细胞;有SF3B1基因突变的患者其线粒体中的粗颗粒沉积比SF3B1基因野生型RARS患者更多[12]。相比于RARS较良好的预后,大约15% MDS患者有另一种剪切因子基因突变(SRSF2),而该类“始祖”突变则对预后有不利影响[15]。
核糖体蛋白质的单倍剂量不足(特别是RPS14)与见于伴5号染色体长臂缺失(5q-)的MDS患者的贫血有关[16]。端粒的破坏[17,18]、某些种微小RNA的异常表达或表达缺失在MDS的病理生理机制中可能很重要[19]。
相对于正常对照,MDS基因组具有总DNA低甲基化同时伴有基因启动子区高甲基化的特征。这些高甲基化的基因不会被表达(即,它们为沉默基因)。就其本身而言,DNA甲基化为基因表达调控提供了一种表观遗传学机制。尽管导致MDS基因组DNA甲基化状态改变的潜在机制尚不明确,但一些研究已表明某些编码酶的基因[例如,TET2(10-11易位)、异柠檬酸脱氢酶(isocitrate dehydrogenase, IDH)-1、IDH2]的突变直接或间接地影响了DNA的甲基化[20-25]。RUNX1基因突变可能会干扰与正常造血细胞衰老有关基因的表达[26]。DNA甲基化在MDS病理生物学中的作用也被疾病对去甲基化药物有反应的研究所支持。 (参见“中危、低危或极低危骨髓增生异常综合征的治疗”,关于‘阿扎胞苷’一节和“中危、低危或极低危骨髓增生异常综合征的治疗”,关于‘地西他滨’一节)
造血细胞之外的因素,如基质异常[27]和T细胞调节异常[28],可能是原发性遗传损伤的原因,也可能继发于原发性遗传损伤。一些研究表明某些MDS患者应用免疫抑制剂(例如,环孢素、抗胸腺细胞球蛋白)治疗MDS有效,这提示免疫系统异常可能是MDS患者中的骨髓抑制和/或骨髓细胞过少的原因,特别是在较年轻的有较低风险的患者以及HLA-DR15阳性的患者中[29,30]。 (参见下文‘再生障碍性贫血’和“中危、低危或极低危骨髓增生异常综合征的治疗”,关于‘免疫抑制治疗’一节)
流行病学 — 新发MDS确切的发病率尚不明确;然而,来自肿瘤数据库的估计表明美国每年约有10000例病例被诊断为MDS[31-33]。例如,一项病例系列研究报道的MDS的粗年发病率为4.1/10万[32]。英国和爱尔兰也已有相近的发病率报道[34,35]。相比之下,东欧报道的MDS发病率相对较低(0.27/10万),这可能与医院使用的模式有关[34]。MDS的真实发病率可能比肿瘤数据库所估计的发病率要高,原因是疾病早期由于症状不典型而可能未被检测出,以及疑似病例可因存在共病而未能进行确定性检查(即,骨髓活检)[36,37]。
MDS最常发生于年龄较大的成人,在大多数病例系列研究中,确诊时的年龄中位数通常大于或等于65岁,并且以男性为主[31,35,38-47]。起病年龄小于50岁者少见[48,49](治疗诱发的MDS除外[46,50]),但是罕见的儿童MDS病例亦有报道,发病年龄中位数为6岁[51-53]。随着年龄的增加,MDS的发病风险增加。在一项研究中,估计的年发病率在小于50岁、50-59岁、60-69岁、70-79岁以及大于80岁的人群中分别为0.5/10万、5.3/10万、15/10万、49/10万和89/10万[54]。
MDS与下列因素有关:环境因素[例如,暴露于化学物品(特别是苯)、放射线、烟草或化疗药物][55]、遗传异常(例如,21-三体综合征、范可尼贫血、Bloom综合征及共济失调性毛细血管扩张症)、其他良性血液系统疾病(例如,阵发性夜间血红蛋白尿、先天性中性粒细胞减少症)(表 1)[56]。此外,据报道一种罕见的常染色体显性疾病与单核细胞减少,对分支杆菌、真菌和乳头状瘤病毒感染的易感性以及骨髓增生异常的发生相关[57]。虽然罕见,但家族性MDS可与RUNX1、CEBPA、TERC、TERT和GATA2种系突变有关[58,59]。尽管很多结缔组织病被报道与MDS相关,如复发性多软骨炎、风湿性多肌痛症、雷诺现象、干燥综合征、炎性肠病、坏疽性脓皮病、Behçet's病和肾小球肾炎等,但是两者的因果关系尚不明确[60-65]。
临床表现 — 就诊时MDS的症状和体征无特异性。很多患者在确诊时无症状,患者仅基于常规血细胞计数检查时发现的异常(例如,贫血、中性粒细胞减少和血小板减少)而引起内科医生的关注。其他患者可表现出先前未被识别的血细胞减少所致的症状或并发症(例如,感染、乏力)。
贫血是血细胞减少最常见的情况,可表现为乏力、虚弱、活动耐受性下降、心绞痛、头晕、认知损害或健康感改变[40,66-68]。较少见的症状如感染、易出现瘀斑或出血,这些提示需要进行血液学评估。发热和体重减轻等全身性症状并不常见,通常代表疾病晚期的临床表现或其伴随的并发症。
MDS的体格检查发现是非特异性的。60%患者有皮肤苍白(反映贫血),26%有瘀点和/或紫癜(由血小板减少所致)[40]。肝肿大、脾肿大和淋巴结肿大并不常见[69]。Sweet’s综合征(嗜中性皮肤病)可能为主诉症状。
感染 — MDS患者有发生中性粒细胞减少和粒细胞功能异常(例如,趋化和微生物杀伤功能受损)相关感染的高发病率[70,71]。感染以细菌感染为主,并且皮肤是最常被累及的部位。尽管也可以发生真菌、病毒以及分枝杆菌感染,但是在未同时应用免疫抑制剂治疗的患者中,这些感染是罕见的。MDS患者感染的评估与治疗将会单独作更详细的讨论。 (参见“骨髓增生异常综合征并发症的治疗”,关于‘感染’一节)
髓系细胞成分的髓过氧化物酶[71]和碱性磷酸酶活性可能降低[72],而单核细胞特异性酯酶活性可能增强[73]。因此,粒细胞可能出现功能障碍,表现出吞噬作用、杀菌活性、黏附和趋化功能的缺陷,从而导致抗细菌感染能力受损[71]。通常可见自然杀伤细胞的数量减少。
尽管在大多数病例中,淋巴细胞并不来源于恶性克隆,但是仍可能在MDS患者中发现适应性免疫系统异常[74]。淋巴细胞减少(主要是由CD4+细胞减少所致)与接受的输血次数呈负相关[75,76]。然而,CD8+淋巴细胞数量正常或轻度增加[77]。免疫球蛋白的产生受到不同程度的影响,低丙种球蛋白血症、多克隆高丙种球蛋白血症以及单克隆丙种球蛋白病在患者中报道的发生率分别为13%、30%和12%[78,79]。
自身免疫异常 — 尽管不常见,但是自身免疫异常可能在MDS病程中并发出现[60-65]。在一项回顾了221例MDS患者的病例系列研究中,30例(14%)出现了自身免疫现象,最常见为皮肤血管炎和单关节关节炎[60]。7例患者被报道出现了以皮肤血管炎、发热、关节炎、外周性水肿和肺浸润为特征的急性临床综合征。其他自身免疫异常包括:心包炎、胸腔积液、皮肤溃疡、虹膜炎、肌炎、周围神经病变以及纯红细胞再生障碍。 (参见“类风湿关节炎的诊断与鉴别诊断”,关于‘副肿瘤疾病’一节和“成人获得性纯红细胞再生障碍性贫血”,关于‘病因和发病机制’一节)
获得性血红蛋白H病 — 据记录有大约8%的MDS病例以及2.5%的各种骨髓增殖性疾病患者[80-83]出现获得性血红蛋白H病(也称为获得性α地中海贫血、α地中海贫血骨髓增生异常综合征),并且导致其红细胞形态改变与α地中海贫血患者中所见的细胞形态改变相似(例如,小红细胞症、血红蛋白过少以及含血红蛋白H的红细胞)(图 1和图片 1)[84]。获得性ATRX(编码染色质相关蛋白的X-连锁基因)体细胞突变与获得性血红蛋白H病的发生有关,其突变主要累及α珠蛋白基因座的丢失[80]。 (参见“地中海贫血的临床表现及诊断”,关于‘血红蛋白H病’一节和“地中海贫血综合征的分子病理学”,关于‘珠蛋白基因的结构和生理功能’一节)
皮肤表现 — MDS患者皮肤病变并不常见,但有两个综合征的发生很频繁,值得在此描述一番:
●Sweet综合征(急性发热性嗜中性皮肤病),当该综合征于MDS患者的病程中并发出现时可能预示着向急性白血病的转化[85-88]。细胞因子白细胞介素-6和粒细胞集落刺激因子的旁分泌和自分泌作用可能参与了该病的发病机制[87]。 (参见“Sweet综合征(急性发热性嗜中性皮病):发病机制、临床表现及诊断”)
●MDS患者出现皮肤髓样肉瘤(亦被称为粒细胞肉瘤或绿色瘤)也可能预示疾病向急性白血病转化[89-91]。由于目前认为髓样肉瘤是AML的髓外表现,所以对于骨髓活检无AML证据的髓样肉瘤患者的治疗方法与用于明显AML患者的治疗方法类似[92]。 (参见“急性髓系白血病的临床表现、病理特征和诊断”,关于‘髓肉瘤’一节)
病理特征 — MDS以1系或多系血细胞及骨髓成分(即,红细胞、粒细胞及血小板)的细胞形态学异常(异型增生)和计量改变为特征。
全血细胞计数 — 全血细胞计数和白细胞分类计数几乎总会显示大细胞性或正细胞性贫血;中性粒细胞减少和血小板减少更为多变。确诊时多达50%的患者可出现全血细胞减少(即,贫血、白细胞减少和血小板减少)。虽然单纯性贫血并不少见,但小于5%的患者表现为单纯性中性粒细胞减少、单纯性血小板减少或单纯性单核细胞增多,而不伴有贫血发生[69]。
●贫血—贫血几乎是一致性的表现,并伴有不恰当低的网织红细胞反应。平均红细胞容积(mean corpuscular volume, MCV)可能为大细胞性(>100fL)或正常。红细胞分布宽度(red cell distribution width, RDW)常增加,反映了红细胞大小变异性的增大,这也被称为红细胞大小不均症。平均红细胞血红蛋白浓度(mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration, MCHC)通常是正常的,反映了血红蛋白与红细胞大小之比基本正常。
●白细胞减少—大约半数患者出现总白细胞计数减少(即,白细胞减少症),这通常是由于中性粒细胞绝对值减少所致[46]。可能会发现有循环中的未成熟中性粒细胞(中幼粒细胞、早幼粒细胞和原始粒细胞),但是白细胞分类计数中原始细胞比例通常小于20%。
●血小板减少—大约25%的MDS患者有不同程度的血小板减少[46]。与贫血不同,单纯性血小板减少不是MDS的一个常见的早期表现[93]。然而,已有关于单纯性20q缺失的核型异常患者出现血小板减少表现并伴极小的形态学异型增生的描述[94]。此类患者可能很容易被误诊为免疫性血小板减少症(immune thrombocytopenia, ITP)。 (参见“Immune thrombocytopenia (ITP) in adults: Clinical manifestations and diagnosis”)
●血小板增多—MDS中血小板增多比血小板减少少见。在一项报告中,在一个中心从1980-2006年诊断为MDS的388例患者中,31例(8%)患者表现为血小板计数增加[95]。这些患者自发性出血或血栓栓塞事件的发病率低。血小板增多已被报道见于5q-综合征、3q21q26综合征以及RARS-T患者,而RARS-T常伴有JAK2基因激活突变。 (参见下文‘MDS伴单纯del(5q)’和‘RARS伴血小板增多’)
外周血涂片 — 外周血涂片通常显示有红细胞系和白细胞系异型增生的证据。血小板在形态学上通常是正常的。少见的情况下,血小板可能比正常血小板更大或更小,或呈多颗粒性血小板。未见到巨核细胞碎片。
红细胞 — MDS患者的外周血中可见有以下红细胞系发现(表 2):
●红细胞通常呈正常红细胞性或大细胞性[72,96],尽管RARS患者可能表现为血红蛋白过少性、小细胞性红细胞的可变细胞群[97]。 (参见“铁粒幼细胞贫血的临床方面、诊断和治疗”)
●椭圆形大红细胞是最为公认的红细胞形态学异常。然而,在某些情况下,可能出现以椭圆形红细胞[98,99]、泪滴状红细胞、口形红细胞及棘形红细胞(棘突红细胞)[100]为主的形态异常,反映了细胞骨架蛋白内在的改变[99,101]。
●外周血涂片中还可能出现嗜碱性点彩、Howell-Jolly小体和类巨幼红细胞的有核红细胞(图片 2和图片 3)。这些外周血中的发现与骨髓前体的红细胞生成不良特征有关,其特征包括:细胞核和细胞质成熟延迟或变形、伴类巨幼红细胞特征的红系增生、核芽生、多核化、核碎裂以及胞浆空泡化[72,102]。
●网状细胞增多可能提示合并自身免疫性溶血性贫血[103]或是网织红细胞成熟延迟的标志,亦称为假性网状细胞增多症[104,105]。
白细胞 — 外周血涂片常见发育异常的中性粒细胞。这些细胞可能表现为细胞增大、核分叶异常以及颗粒度异常(表 2)。单核细胞也可能表现出未成熟的特征。
●粒细胞通常表现为核分叶减少,即所谓的假性Pelger-Huet畸形[pseudo-Pelger-Huet(Pelgeroid)][43],常伴有胞浆颗粒减少或缺失(图片 4和图片 5)[106,107]。
●有时候可见由于核质之间的空隙将染色质分割成块而在粒细胞内造成染色质的成簇分布模式,从而形成伴核分叶减少的核碎裂外观[108,109]。可能发现有环形核和棒状核现象,特别是在治疗相关的MDS中[110]。罕见的情况下,假性Chediak-Higashi异常(图片 6)[111]或先天性骨髓粒细胞缺乏症样特征(图片 7)可能较为明显[112]。 (参见“先天性中性粒细胞减少”,关于‘重度先天性中性粒细胞减少’一节)
●根据细胞核与胞浆的特征可以鉴别原始粒细胞,其表现为细胞核/细胞质比值较大、核仁易见、核染色质细致、可变的细胞质嗜碱性、少或无细胞质颗粒以及缺少高尔基区[113,114]。很少出现白血病细胞原始细胞中才有的Aure小体(图片 8)。先前诊断为MDS的患者中出现Aure小体常预示着向AML的转化[115]。
骨髓穿刺和骨髓活检
骨髓穿刺 — 骨髓穿刺能提供进行500个细胞分类计数的材料,以确定骨髓中原始细胞的比例,它也使得有可能对原始细胞和其他细胞进行详细的细胞学评估。髓系细胞成熟受损常显而易见。粒细胞前体比例可能增加,并且可能出现在中幼粒细胞时期的相对成熟障碍[39]。细胞质成熟可能比细胞核成熟进展得更快速[48]。
髓系细胞/红系细胞比值可变,但通常是减少的。细胞向发育较不成熟的前体细胞转变,但根据定义原始细胞比例小于20%[116]。红系前体细胞形态学异常包括体积增大、核多分叶、核芽生以及其他异常形式。红系前体细胞的细胞质可能出现空泡、或粗或细的过碘酸-希夫染色(periodic acid-Schiff, PAS)阳性颗粒、或者围绕细胞核形成“项链”状的载铁线粒体沉积(即,普鲁士蓝染色可见的环形铁粒幼细胞)[117,118]。粒系前体细胞也可能显示有异形增生特征,例如体积异常增大、核形状异常以及细胞质颗粒度增加或降低。
骨髓活检 — 骨髓活检能够提供关于受累程度以及与病程相关的特定组织学特征(例如,纤维化)的一般概况。细胞构成通常增加,但也可能表现为正常或减低。其他特征包括:反应性淋巴细胞增多和肥大细胞增多、淋巴细胞聚集、纤维化、组织细胞增多以及假性Gaucher组织细胞。此外,成簇的不成熟细胞可能会分布于骨髓腔中央,而非沿骨内膜表面分布[117,119]。特殊技术可以显示低风险MDS患者中细胞凋亡的增加[120]。
骨髓通常表现为细胞过多(增生活跃),并伴有单系或多系异型增生(表 2)[119,121,122]。存在骨髓增生活跃但外周血全血细胞减少的经典悖论反映出不成熟细胞通过髓内细胞死亡(凋亡)而损失[123,124]。尽管骨髓细胞过少并不常见,但是它最多见于治疗相关MDS,必须与再生障碍性贫血(aplastic anemia, AA)相鉴别[50]。 (参见下文‘再生障碍性贫血’)
●红细胞—骨髓中的红系特异性发现包括(表 2):
•在可显示铁的骨髓标本染色中,含有载铁线粒体的环形铁粒幼细胞可能很明显(图片 9)(参见下文‘环形铁粒幼细胞性难治性贫血’)。
•以栓系着离散的细胞核的染色质丝为特征的核间桥反映了有丝分裂受损,并有可能促成MDS所特有的遗传物质的增加或缺失[125]。
•尽管红系增生可能是与无效红细胞生成相关的主要表现,但是红细胞再生障碍和/或增生减低也偶有发生[126]。
●巨核细胞—巨核细胞数量正常或增多,有时成簇分布。巨核细胞异常是常见的骨髓检查发现,这些异常包括:微小巨核细胞、大单个核形式的巨核细胞、多离散核巨核(“pawn ball”样改变,见附图10)细胞以及少颗粒巨核细胞(图片 10)[43,127,128]。可能会发现非分叶巨核细胞或单个核巨核细胞,特别是在与5 q-综合征相关的患者中。血管性血友病因子抗体和CD41(血小板GpIIa/IIIb的一个成分)抗体也许可以用于识别这些不典型的巨核细胞[129]。 (参见下文‘MDS伴单纯del(5q)’)
●不成熟前体细胞的异常定位—粒细胞生成可能由原来正常的骨小梁旁区域转移至骨髓腔更中央区域[119,130]。这种粒细胞前体细胞的移位被称为“不成熟前体细胞的异常定位”[119,130,131]。
●纤维化—可高达50%的MDS患者报道有轻至中度的骨髓纤维化,10%-15%患者可见明显的纤维化[132-135]。虽然骨髓纤维化见于MDS各个亚型,但它在治疗相关的MDS中最为常见[50]。重要的是成熟胶原沉积(应用三色染色法检验)在MDS中并不常见。相反地,纤维化以网状纤维数量和粗度均增加的形式发生,通过嗜银染色检查最容易发现[136]。根据欧洲共识标准,可以对纤维化程度进行分级[137]。
细胞化学和免疫细胞化学 — 通过细胞化学染色和免疫表型检查可证实正常髓系成熟细胞抗原减少或缺失[75],或者出现通常情况下不会被表达的抗原[138]。髓系细胞成分的髓过氧化物酶[71]和碱性磷酸酶活性可能减低[72],而单核细胞特异性酯酶活性则可能增强[73]。
有用的细胞化学方法包括:
●铁染色以识别环形铁粒幼细胞
●幼红细胞PAS染色以评估红系造血异常
●过氧化物酶或苏丹黑B染色以证实髓系原始细胞
●非特异性或双重酯酶染色以识别异常粒细胞形式和单核细胞形式
免疫细胞化学对于以下目的可能是有帮助的:
●排除淋巴系起源的原始细胞
●通过血型糖蛋白A反应性抗体鉴别红系前体细胞
●应用针对CD34、CD117、CD13、CD14及CD33的抗体量化髓系祖细胞和原始细胞[139]
●应用用血管性血友病因子[129]、Ⅷ因子[140]及CD41具有特异性的抗体[141]或HPI-ID单克隆抗体检测异形增生的或未成熟的巨核细胞[142]
●发现谱系失真(例如,髓系细胞表达非髓系抗原),并确定是否存在两系或三系异型增生[143,144]
流式细胞术 — 外周血和骨髓形态学分析以寻找异型增生的证据是诊断MDS的关键因素,但它具有主观性,并且可重复性差[145,146]。已开发出用于评价MDS生成障碍的自动流式细胞计数系统(多参数流式细胞计量术) [147]。这些系统似乎对MDS患者的诊断与预后均具有价值[147-153]。流式细胞术的结果可以提示克隆性和MDS的存在。虽然流式细胞术的检查结果不被认为具有诊断性,但它们可以为疑似病例的诊断提供进一步支持。应当参照欧洲白血病网的国际流式细胞仪检测工作组的标准方式进行流式细胞术的检测[152]。
遗传学特征 — MDS的诊断基于在合适的临床情况下对骨髓和外周血涂片的评价而做出。通过常规细胞遗传学分析、逆转录聚合酶链反应(reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction, RT-PCR)或荧光原位杂交法(fluorescent in situ hybridization, FISH)发现的染色体异常在某些情况下能够鉴别MDS与急性髓性白血病(acute myeloid leukemia, AML) ,有助于MDS分型,并且是确定MDS预后风险组和治疗的主要因素[154]。 (参见“骨髓增生异常综合征的治疗概述”,关于‘治疗前评估’一节和“骨髓增生异常综合征的细胞遗传学和分子遗传学”)
重要的是,不论原始细胞计数的多少,如果发现以下细胞遗传学异常,即能诊断为AML[116](参见“急性髓系白血病的临床表现、病理特征和诊断”,关于‘骨髓浸润’一节):
●t(8;21)(q22;q22);RUNX1-RUNX1T1(先前称为AML1-ETO)
●inv(16)(p13.1q22)或t(16;16)(p13.1;q22);CBFB-MYH11
●t(15;17)(q22;q21.1);PML-RARA
同样地,对于有其他方面无法解释的难治性血细胞减少且无异型增生形态学证据的患者而言,存在下列染色体异常之一则为MDS的推定证据[116]:
●-7/del(7q)
●-5/del(5q)
●del(13q)
●del(11q)
●del(12p)或t(12p)
●del(9q)
●idic(X)(q13)
●t(17p)(非平衡易位)或i(17q)(即,17p丢失)
●t(11;16)(q23;p13.3)
●t(3;21)(q26.2;q22.1)
●t(1;3)(p36.3;q21)
●t(2;11)(p21;q23)
●inv(3)(q21q26.2)
●t(6;9)(p23;q34)
关于其他染色体异常的检测方法[例如FISH、流式-FISH、比较基因组杂交(comparative genomic hybridization, CGH)、单核苷酸多态性芯片、杂合性丢失(单亲二倍体)]是否具有更好的预后意义或者是否能够用于指导治疗尚有待于确定[155,156]。对从患者骨髓或外周血细胞中提取的DNA进行外显子测序(深度测序)将来有望成为可用的其他的诊断性检测方法。MDS患者细胞遗传学改变的进一步详细信息参见其他专题。 (参见“骨髓增生异常综合征的细胞遗传学和分子遗传学”)
评估 — 对于任何有无法解释的血细胞减少或单核细胞增多的患者应考虑MDS的诊断。应详细询问病史,引出关于营养状况、酒精和毒品使用、用药、毒性化学物质的职业接触、既往抗肿瘤药物或放射疗法治疗史以及人免疫缺陷病毒(human immunodeficiency virus, HIV)感染的危险因素和/或治疗等细节。外周血涂片评估和单侧骨髓穿刺和活检是诊断MDS的重要组成部分。同时必须除外其他与MDS类似的常见疾病(例如,HIV感染、维生素B12缺乏、叶酸缺乏、铜缺乏症以及锌过多等)。另外,临床医生可能希望开展一些推荐用于MDS患者治疗前评估用的、与初始评估相配合的检查项目。这些更详细的内容将单独介绍。 (参见“骨髓增生异常综合征的治疗概述”,关于‘治疗前评估’一节)
即使在中性粒细胞减少、血小板减少和/或凝血病的情况下,骨髓穿刺/活检部位发生出血或感染(作为该操作并发症)的情况也是并不常见的。成人优选的活检部位为后上髂嵴和髂后上棘,但是如果患者的这些部位以前接受过放射治疗,则应该更换穿刺部位。虽然胸骨不能用于骨髓活检,但它是骨髓穿刺的一个合理的替代部位。 (参见“骨髓穿刺与活检:适应证和操作技术”,关于‘骨髓穿刺或活检部位的选择’一节)
由于存在广泛纤维化,偶尔患者骨髓穿刺时可能出现“干抽”。在不能抽取骨髓的情况下,适当的骨髓活检及印片检查应能为诊断目的提供足够的材料。一部分骨髓活检标本可以用生理盐水处理,或最好用培养基[例如,罗斯维尔公园纪念研究所(Roswell Park Memorial Institute, RPMI)培养基]处理,并且在流式细胞仪实验室进行分离,以尝试分离出一种细胞悬液用于分析。
有必要仔细地检查骨髓穿刺和外周血涂片,用以记录必要的异形增生的细胞学特征,这些特征可在任何一个造血谱系或所有造血谱系中被识别。骨髓活检能够提供骨髓受累程度以及与病程相关的特异性组织学特征(例如,纤维化)的总体概况。因为MDS的诊断很大部分依赖于形态学改变,所以涂片的质量极为重要。制备涂片应当使用新鲜获取的标本,使用暴露于抗凝剂2个小时或以上的标本所制作的涂片的效果是不理想的。
推荐进行200个白细胞分类计数以确定外周血中原始细胞的比例;对于重度血细胞减少的患者而言,可能有必要进行血沉棕黄层涂片法。应采用骨髓穿刺进行500个白细胞分类计数以确定骨髓中原始细胞的比例。通过骨髓穿刺计算的原始细胞计数要优于通过流式细胞术获得的原始细胞计数,原因在于后者受到血液稀释、样本制备中引入(例如,红细胞溶解方法、梯密度离心法)的人工产品以及不同细胞群门控选择方法的影响。
诊断 — MDS诊断的做出是根据临床环境下外周血和骨髓检查的发现为依据的。大多数MDS的诊断是根据有以下列出的3项主要特征而做出的[116]。虽然大多数MDS病例具有这3项特征,但一些病例并不具备这些特征(如在给出的附加说明中所阐述的那样)。
●一系或多系血细胞和骨髓成分(即,红细胞、粒细胞及血小板)出现在其他方面无法解释的定量改变。用于界定血细胞减少的数值是:血红蛋白小于10g/dL(100g/L)、绝对中性粒细胞计数(absolute neutrophil count, ANC)小于1.8x109/L(<1800/μL)、血小板小于100x109/L(<100000/μL)。然而,如果具有确切的异型增生的形态学证据,则患者不满足血细胞减少的阈值也不能除外MDS的诊断。
●在缺乏导致异型增生的其他病因的情况下,通过视觉检查外周血涂片、骨髓吸出物以及骨髓活检时出现显著异型增生的形态学证据(即,红系前体、粒细胞或巨核细胞大于或等于该系别细胞的10%)(表 2)。在缺少异型增生的形态学证据情况下,对于具有其他方面无法解释的难治性血细胞减少且有特定遗传异常的患者,可以做出MDS的推定性诊断。 (参见上文‘遗传学特征’)
●原始细胞占骨髓抽吸物和外周血全部细胞的比例小于20%。原始细胞比例较高(大于或等于20%)的病例考虑为AML。另外,出现髓样肉瘤或特定遗传异常[例如,t(8;21)、inv(16)或t(15;17)],不论原始细胞计数如何,应考虑诊断为AML。 (参见“急性髓系白血病的临床表现、病理特征和诊断”,关于‘原始细胞计数’一节)
鉴别诊断 — MDS必须与也可能引起血细胞减少和/或异型增生的其他疾病实体相鉴别。在特定病例中所考虑的疾病实体很大程度上取决于起病特征。例如,对于表现为血细胞减少、循环中原始细胞或明显纤维化的病例,重要的是要分别考虑到特发性意义未明的血细胞减少(idiopathic cytopenia of undetermined significance, ICUS)、AML以及骨髓纤维化,以及其他疾病。下面章节描述了应考虑的最常见的疾病实体。
特发性意义未明的血细胞减少 — ICUS这一术语是用来对下列病例进行分类的:持续性血细胞减少不伴明显的异型增生,不伴可被认为是MDS推定证据的特定细胞遗传学异常,不伴潜在相关的血液学或非血液学疾病[116,157-160]。 (参见上文‘遗传学特征’)
ICUS的自然病程目前尚不明确。一项纳入了67例ICUS患者的回顾性分析评估了诊断时的克隆性证据以及患者结局[161]。该人群中67%的患者表现有贫血。累及1个、2个和3个骨髓细胞系的细胞减少的患者比例分别为66%、18%和12%。8例患者进展为AML。所有ICUS患者的总生存期中位数为44个月。共对23例患者采用了基于人雄激素受体基因分析(human androgen receptor gene-based assays, HUMARA)的克隆性研究,结果6例患者证实存在克隆性细胞群,其中2例进展为AML。
急性髓系白血病 — MDS和AML位于一个疾病连续带内,两者的鉴别主要根据原始细胞的百分比做出。根据目前WHO分类系统,在AML中原始细胞所占百分比必须大于或等于全部细胞的20%[162]。此外,出现髓样肉瘤或以下任一遗传异常,则不论原始细胞计数如何,均被认为诊断为AML:
●AML伴t(8;21)(q22;q22);RUNX1-RUNX1T1(先前为AML1-ETO)
●AML伴inv(16)(p13.1q22)或t(16;16)(p13.1;q22);CBFB-MYH11
●APL伴t(15;17)(q24.1;q21.1);PML-RARA
难治性贫血伴原始细胞增多(refractory anemia with excess blasts, RAEB)可能没办法与早期、进展中的AML相鉴别。至少要观察30日后才可以可靠地区分两者;一般而言,进展中的AML的外周血和/或骨髓原始细胞比例应会持续上升,而这在RAEB中则保持相对稳定。 (参见下文‘难治性贫血伴原始细胞过多’和“急性髓系白血病的临床表现、病理特征和诊断”)
在以前的法国-美国-英国(French-American-British, FAB)分类系统中,MDS伴有Aure小体或骨髓原始细胞为21%-30%或外周血原始细胞大于或等于5%的病例被分类为转化型RAEB[163]。然而,在WHO分型系统中将上述患者划入AML范畴[116],尽管已有关于RAEB-T和AML间的生物学差异的报道[164]。
MDS/MPN综合征 — MDS以异型增生和血细胞减少为特征。相比之下,骨髓增生异常性/骨髓增殖性肿瘤(MDS/MPN)包括同时存在异型增生性和增殖性特征的疾病[116]。这包括:
●慢性粒单核细胞白血病(chronic myelomonocytic leukemia, CMML)—CMML的特征为成熟中的单核细胞产生过度,有时为异型增生的中性粒细胞产生过度,并常伴有贫血和/或血小板减少。CMML以前曾被认为是MDS的一个亚型,但是它现已被划分为MDS/MPN。 (参见下文‘慢性粒单核细胞白血病’)
●BCR-ABL阴性的非典型慢性髓系白血病—病例通常的特征为伴有粒细胞生成障碍的显著中性粒细胞增多。 (参见“Clinical manifestations and diagnosis of chronic myeloid leukemia”, section on ‘"Atypical CML"’)
●幼年型粒单核细胞白血病—这种婴儿期和儿童早期的罕见疾病以肝脾肿大和淋巴结肿大为特点,伴或不伴粒细胞生成障碍的证据。 (参见“Clinical manifestations and diagnosis of chronic myeloid leukemia”, section on ‘Juvenile myelomonocytic leukemia’)
●MDS/MPN,不可分类型(包括RARS-T)。
●单纯的17p等臂染色体—伴有该染色体畸形的患者具有向AML转化的高风险。外周血和骨髓的检查发现包括白细胞增多、贫血、血小板减少、脾肿大、微小巨核细胞和纤维化[165]。
具有显著的异型增生性和骨髓增殖性特征的病例应被归类为MDS/MPN,而非MDS。骨髓增殖性特征包括:显著的血小板增多(例如,血小板计数≥450x109/L)并伴有骨髓巨核细胞增殖和白细胞增多(白细胞计数≥13x109/L),伴或不伴明显的脾肿大。
慢性粒单核细胞白血病 — CMML是一种MDS/MPN,它的特点为成熟中的单核细胞产生过多,有时为异型增生的中性粒细胞产生过多,常伴有贫血和/或血小板减少[166-168]。巨大脾可见于高达25%的CMML患者,并常伴有肝肿大、淋巴结肿大和结节性皮肤白血病浸润[169-173]。伴有极高的或不受控制的单核细胞增多的CMML患者可以出现胸腔积液、心包积液和腹水,通常经过抗白血病治疗缓解[174]。
在一项病例系列研究中,47%的患者被发现有血清学多克隆丙种球蛋白病[170]。血或尿中的溶菌酶活性可能增高,这提示了单核细胞生成增多以及细胞更新加快[175]。溶菌酶尿可能伴随尿钾排除增多、低钾血症以及血清肌酐水平升高。由于Ⅹ因子与异常的单核细胞结合,导致获得性Ⅹ因子缺乏而可能出现凝血病。 (参见“低钾血症的原因”,关于‘失盐性肾病’一节)
MDS患者常出现单核细胞计数的临界性升高或相对性升高。相比之下,CMML病例的外周血单核细胞计数大于1000/μL(图片 11)。骨髓一致性地表现为细胞过多(增生明显活跃),单个核细胞显示出介于中幼粒细胞和单核细胞之间的特征,其被称为副髓系细胞[169]。应用结合酯酶染色可以鉴定单核系和髓系前体细胞。骨髓或外周血中原始细胞小于20%。原始细胞包括原始粒细胞、原单核细胞和幼单核细胞。常见有不典型细胞学特征的单核细胞,这类单核细胞被排除于原始细胞计数。缺乏Aure小体,并且可能伴或不伴有环形铁粒幼细胞。根据CMML的定义,病例没有费城染色体,BCR-ABL1融合基因阴性,无血小板衍生生长因子受体(PDGFRA或PDGFRB)基因重排。
RARS伴血小板增多 — 一些具有RARS临床和形态学特征的患者也有血小板增多(RARS-T)[176-178]。这些患者既有MDS的特征(例如,环形铁粒幼细胞),又有MPN的特征(例如,出现类似于原发性血小板增多症患者的巨核细胞,血小板增多等),因而WHO已暂时地将这些患者划分为MDS/MPD不可分类型(即MDS/MPD-U) 之中的RARS-T[179]。 (参见“特发性血小板增多症的诊断及临床表现”)
RARS-T现象有以下两种可供选择的可能性,一是该类患者同时患有2个独立的疾病(例如,RARS和原发性血小板增多症);或者它可能是原发性血小板增多症患者伴继发于非MDS相关缺陷的环形铁粒幼细胞[180]。然而,RARS-T患者JAK2 V617F突变检出率高达2/3,而在89例典型的MDS病例中仅有2例阳性,这提示RARS-T最好被考虑为另一种JAK2突变相关的慢性MPD[181-184]。在一项有启发性的研究报道中,3例初期血小板计数呈正常或减低的RARS患者进展为了RARS-T[185]。此时,3例中有2例检出了JAK2突变,这提示RARS-T可能通过获得体细胞突变而由RARS进展而来。
再生障碍性贫血 — 尽管大部分MDS患者的骨髓细胞正常或增加,但小部分患者骨髓细胞低于基于其年龄的预期水平(即,年龄小于60岁的患者其骨髓细胞小于30%,或年龄大于60岁的患者其骨髓细胞小于20%),这被称为低增生性MDS[116]。骨髓细胞过少最常见于治疗相关的MDS[50]。这些患者的髓细胞通常具有形态学异常和核型异常,这些特征使其能够与AA相鉴别。很多合并AA和MDS的患者有小部分细胞出现糖基磷脂酰肌醇锚缺陷,该异常细胞为阵发性夜间血红蛋白尿(paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria, PNH)的特征性缺陷,但是仅有MDS的患者极少能够进展为PNH或者出现典型PNH的临床表现[186]。 (参见“再生障碍性贫血:发病机制、临床表现和诊断”,关于‘诊断标准’一节)
克隆性染色体异常(例如,5q-,单体7) 的存在能证实MDS的诊断[187]。骨髓中表达CD34的细胞比例增多、存在环形铁粒幼细胞以及粒细胞或巨核细胞异型增生也能提示MDS的诊断[188]。相比于MDS患者,AA患者的肿瘤坏死因子(tumor necrosis factor, TNF)受体的表达明显更高,因此通过流式细胞术检测骨髓干细胞TNF受体的表达能鉴别MDS和AA[189]。
骨髓纤维化 — MDS患者常见有轻度至中度的骨髓纤维化,并且小部分患者表现为显著的纤维化,类似于原发性骨髓纤维化中的(primary myelofibrosis, PMF)纤维化。高纤维化的MDS患者常表现为全血细胞减少,三系异型增生,以及不典型的巨核细胞增殖[134,135,190]。大多数高纤维化MDS病例与PMF的鉴别在于前者缺乏脾肿大。在一些复杂的病例中,评估JAK2V617F突变可能是有益的。该突变在大约50%的PMF患者中较为明显[191,192],但其仅存在于5%的MDS患者中[193]。 (参见“原发性骨髓纤维化的临床表现及诊断”)
HIV感染 — 伴随HIV感染常出现病态造血和不同程度的血细胞减少[194,195]。 (参见“HIV感染的血液学表现:贫血”和“Hematologic manifestations of HIV infection: Neutropenia”和“HIV感染的血液系统表现:血小板减少和凝血异常”)
例如,一项研究以盲法的形式对来源于178例HIV感染患者的216个骨髓样本进行了详细的形态学检查[194]。最常见的骨髓检查结果为骨髓细胞过多(53%的样本)、脊髓增生异常(69%)、骨髓储存铁增加(65%)、巨幼红细胞性造血(38%)、纤维化(20%)、浆细胞增多(25%)、淋巴细胞聚集(36%)以及肉芽肿(13%)。
这些患者出现造血细胞异型增生可能是由药物、机会性感染和/或HIV直接作用于造血祖细胞导致的[196,197]。因此,对于有无法解释的血细胞减少和/或骨髓增生异常的患者应该考虑进行HIV的血清学筛查。相比于无HIV感染的MDS患者,伴有HIV感染的MDS患者更有可能出现复杂的细胞遗传特性(包括7q-/7-)和较短的生存期[198]。 (参见“急性和早期HIV感染:治疗”)
营养状况不良 — 很多MDS患者会出现大红细胞、网织红细胞比例降低以及全血细胞减少(贫血、白细胞减少及血小板减少),上述发现也可能见于巨幼红细胞性贫血、铜缺乏[199,200]以及锌过多[201]。虽然中性粒细胞分叶减少是MDS特有的,但是中性粒细胞分叶增加合并大红细胞症则是巨幼红细胞性贫血的特异性病征。相应地,所有患者都应该排除锌过多、维生素B12缺乏、叶酸缺乏和铜缺乏。在老年人中,鉴别MDS与其他原因引起的贫血是十分重要的[202]。 (参见“维生素B12及叶酸缺乏的病因及临床表现”,关于‘实验室检查’一节和“维生素B12和叶酸缺乏的诊断和治疗”,关于‘初步诊断策略’一节和“铁粒幼细胞贫血的临床方面、诊断和治疗”,关于‘铜缺乏’一节和“老年人贫血”)
药物 — 很多药物的使用,包括粒细胞集落刺激因子[203]、丙戊酸[204]、吗替麦考酚酯[205,206]、更昔洛韦[206,207]以及阿伦单抗[208],与获得性异型增生性变化有关,包括大红细胞症、中性粒细胞分叶异常(减少)、中性粒细胞减少、血小板减少以及骨髓检查中全部三系的异型增生性改变。甲氨喋呤或烷化剂(例如,环磷酰胺)有时被应用于治疗自身免疫性疾病,它们也可以引起异型增生。在大多数已报道的病例中,这些改变经过减少或停用这些药物,通常可在数周的内逆转。在复杂病例中,可能有必要反复进行骨髓检查以确定诊断。
WHO分类 — 基于形态学、免疫表型、遗传学和临床特征的综合,研究者使用WHO分型法对MDS进行了分类[209]。该分类方法试图识别不同的生物学实体,以希望未来的工作能够阐明其分子途径,使之可接受靶向治疗。WHO分型标准是建立在FAB协作组分型标准(以各国的本国语言阐释)的基础上(表 3)[163]。这些分类系统比较复杂,并且需要有血液病理学专家进行形态学评价[210]。
WHO分类系统将MDS分为6类常规实体,其估计的百分比如下[116,211]:
●难治性血细胞减少伴单系异型增生(refractory cytopenia with unilineage dysplasia, RCUD)(难治性贫血、难治性中性粒细胞减少或难治性血小板减少)-小于5%
●RARS-小于5%
●难治性血细胞减少伴多系异型增生(refractory cytopenia with multilineage dysplasia, RCMD)-70%
●RAEB-25%
●MDS伴单纯del(5q)-5%
●MDS,不能分类型–小于5%
儿童期MDS在WHO分类系统中被认为是一个独特的疾病实体[116]。儿童期难治性血细胞减少大约占儿童期MDS的一半,并且是这种情况下最为常见的一个亚型。
难治性血细胞减少伴单系异型增生 — RCUD以骨髓原始细胞小于5%和外周血原始细胞小于或等于1%为特征[116]。无单核细胞增多,无大量环形铁粒幼细胞,也无Aure小体。定义异型增生的推荐水平值为大于或等于受累系别的10%,而界定血细胞减少的推荐值如下[212]:
●难治性贫血-血红蛋白小于10g/dL
●难治性血小板减少-血小板计数小于100000/μL
●难治性中性粒细胞减少-ANC小于1800/μL
如果患者具有明确的MDS形态学或细胞遗传学特征,则即使检查值高于上述水平,也不能排除MDS的诊断。虽然大多数RCUD的患者会表现出一系血细胞减少(通常对应于异型增生的系别),但具有2系血细胞减少而伴单系异型增生的患者也属于此类。相比之下,有难治性全血细胞减少伴单系异型增生的患者则不被认为是RCUD,相反其被归入MDS不可分类型。
环形铁粒幼细胞性难治性贫血 — RARS不仅满足难治性贫血的全部标准,而且也显示有大于15%环形铁粒幼细胞[116]。每个细胞含有超过5个载铁线粒体的病理性铁粒幼细胞在经铁染色的骨髓样本中可能较为明显(图片 9)。细胞核周缘被5个或以上载铁线粒体占据1/3以上的铁粒幼细胞被称为“环形”铁粒幼细胞[113,213]。在MDS的各个亚型都可以发现环形铁粒幼细胞和储存铁增加,但前者是RARS的特征。
RARS通常预后良好。然而,用于界定RARS的15%的临界值有一些武断,因而已受到质疑。在一项纳入200例无过多原始细胞且环形铁粒幼细胞大于1%的MDS患者的研究中,环形铁粒幼细胞的比例并不是无白血病生存率或总体生存率的独立预后因素[214]。 (参见“成人骨髓增生异常综合征的预后”,关于‘FAB分类’一节)
难治性贫血伴多系异型增生 — RCMD以少于5%的骨髓原始细胞以及两系或更多细胞系的严重异型增生为特征[116]。一些RCMD患者伴有环形铁粒幼细胞的增多,其被称为RCMD-RS。
难治性贫血伴原始细胞过多 — RAEB以5%-19%的骨髓原始细胞为特征,并可以被进一步细分为:RAEB-Ⅰ(原始细胞5%-9%)和RAEB-Ⅱ(原始细胞10%-19%)[116]。在一项纳入558例符合WHO的RAEB标准的患者的研究中,除原始细胞比例不同之外,RAEB-Ⅰ和RAEB-Ⅱ患者在临床、形态学、血液学或细胞遗传学等方面的参数差异均无统计学意义[215]。但是,RAEB-Ⅱ患者的生存期中位数较短(9个月 vs 16个月),并且发生AML的风险增加(40% vs 22%)。
MDS伴单纯del(5q) — 大约5%的MDS患者表现有“5q-综合征”,其主要特征为严重贫血,血小板计数正常,以5号染色体长臂中间缺失为唯一细胞遗传学异常[127,216,217]。5q-综合征患者可能有迁延数年的相对良好的病程。其转化为急性白血病的发生率较低,并且因对来那度胺等新型药物治疗反应较好而闻名。 (参见“中危、低危或极低危骨髓增生异常综合征的治疗”,关于‘5q缺失的患者’一节)
5q-综合征是原发性MDS的一个特殊类型,主要发生于年龄较大的女性[216-218]。确诊时的中位年龄为65-70岁,以女性为主,男女比例为3:7(与MDS的其他类型好发于男性不同)[219]。受累患者通常表现为难治性大细胞性贫血,血小板计数正常或升高,无显著中性粒细胞减少[218]。由于一般缺乏血小板减少和显著粒细胞减少,所以出血和感染的发病率较低,但是经常需要进行红细胞输血。 (参见“骨髓增生异常综合征的细胞遗传学和分子遗传学”,关于‘5号染色体缺失’一节)
5q-综合征患者骨髓的特征性表现为出现单分叶核或双分叶核的微小巨核细胞。大约80%的患者的骨髓原始细胞小于5%[218,219]。del(5q)常为中间性缺失。大约75%患者有del(5)(q13q33),其他中间性缺失包括del(5)(q15q33)和del(5)(q22q33)[220-222]。 (参见“骨髓增生异常综合征的细胞遗传学和分子遗传学”,关于‘5号染色体缺失’一节和“骨髓增生异常综合征的细胞遗传学和分子遗传学”,关于‘5q-综合征’一节)
患者教育 — UpToDate提供两种类型的患者教育资料:“基础篇”和“高级篇”。基础篇通俗易懂,相当于5-6年级阅读水平(美国),可以解答关于某种疾病患者可能想了解的4-5个关键问题。基础篇更适合想了解疾病概况且喜欢阅读简短易读资料的患者。高级篇篇幅较长,内容更深入详尽。相当于10-12年级阅读水平(美国),适合想深入了解并且能接受一些医学术语的患者。
以下是与此专题相关的患者教育资料。我们建议您以打印或电子邮件的方式给予患者。(您也可以通过检索“患者教育”和关键词找到更多相关专题内容。)
●基础篇(参见“患者教育:骨髓增生异常综合征/MDS(基础篇)”)
●高级篇(参见“Patient education: Myelodysplastic syndromes (MDS) in adults (Beyond the Basics)”)
总结
●骨髓增生异常综合征(myelodysplastic syndromes, MDS)是一组异质性恶性造血干细胞疾病,以异型增生性和无效血细胞生成为特征。骨髓增生异常综合征(MDS)最常发生于年龄较大的成人,可能是新发的,或者在暴露于潜在致突变性治疗(例如,放射暴露、化疗)后数年发生。 (参见上文‘流行病学’和‘发病机制’)
●对于任何伴有无法解释的血细胞减少或单核细胞增多的患者,均应考虑骨髓增生异常综合征(MDS)的诊断。有必要仔细地检查骨髓穿刺和外周血涂片,以记录必要的异型增生的细胞学特征,这些特征可在任何一个造血系或所有造血系中被识别(表 2)。某些染色体异常的发现在某些情况下能够鉴别骨髓增生异常综合征(MDS)与急性髓性白血病(AML),有助于骨髓增生异常综合征(MDS)的分类,并且是确定预后风险组和治疗的主要因素。 (参见上文‘评估’和‘诊断’)
●诊断骨髓增生异常综合征(MDS)必须满足如下两项条件:
●有其他方面无法解释的1系或多系血细胞和骨髓成分(即,红细胞、粒细胞及血小板)的数量变化。用于定义细胞减少的数值如下:血红蛋白小于10g/dL(100g/L),中性粒细胞绝对值(ANC)小于1.8x109/L(<1800/μL),以及血小板小于100x109/L(<100000/μL)。然而,如果患者具有明确的异型增生的形态学证据,则未能满足血细胞减少的上述阈值也不能排除骨髓增生异常综合征(MDS)诊断。
•在无导致异型增生的其他原因的情况下,在对外周血涂片、骨髓抽吸物以及骨髓活检的目检中有显著异型增生的形态学证据(即,红系前体、粒细胞或巨核细胞大于或等于该系别细胞的10%)(表 2)。当缺少异型增生的形态学证据时,若患者具有其他方面无法解释的难治性血细胞减少且存在特定的遗传血异常可以做出骨髓增生异常综合征(MDS)的推定性诊断。(参见上文‘遗传学特征’)
重要的是原始细胞在骨髓抽吸物和外周血的全部细胞中所占比例必须小于20%。另外,存在髓样肉瘤或特定的遗传学异常时[例如,具有t(8;21)、inv(16)或t(15;17)的患者],不论原始细胞计数如何,均被认为诊断为急性髓性白血病(AML)。 (参见上文‘急性髓系白血病’)
●骨髓增生异常综合征(MDS)必须与也可能表现为血细胞减少和/或异型增生的其他疾病相鉴别。出现与骨髓增生异常综合征(MDS)特征相似的常见疾病包括:人体免疫缺陷病毒(HIV)感染、维生素B12缺乏、叶酸缺乏、铜缺乏及锌过多。特定病例中要考虑的其他疾病实体主要取决于其起病特征。 (参见上文‘鉴别诊断’)
●基于形态学、免疫表型、遗传学和临床特征的综合,研究者使用世界卫生组织(WHO)的分类系统将骨髓增生异常综合征(MDS)进行分类。 (参见上文‘WHO分类’)
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